Kajima Business Model Canvas
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Unlock Kajima’s strategic playbook with our concise Business Model Canvas—revealing how the firm creates value across projects, partnerships, and revenue streams while managing cost and risk in complex construction markets. Ideal for investors, consultants, and founders, the full downloadable canvas delivers nine fully populated blocks, actionable insights, and editable Word/Excel files to benchmark strategy and inform decision-making.
Partnerships
Kajima forms strategic joint ventures with local and global construction firms to share risk and technical expertise on large infrastructure projects, enabling compliance with complex overseas regulations and consistent execution quality. By end-2025, these alliances helped secure over $3.2 billion in contracts across Southeast Asia, accounting for roughly 42% of Kajima’s international order backlog.
Kajima keeps a global network of specialized subcontractors and raw-material suppliers to secure inputs like steel and low-carbon concrete; long-term contracts covered about 62% of raw-material spend in FY2024, buffering 2021–25 commodity volatility. Strengthening these ties reduces supply-chain disruptions and stabilized project schedules, cutting average procurement delays from 9 weeks (2021) to 4 weeks in 2024.
Collaborations with universities like the University of Tokyo and startups such as CYBERDYNE have driven Kajima’s robotics and automated-construction R&D, yielding a 28% productivity gain in pilot projects and cutting labor hours by 22% through 2024.
These partnerships focus on next-gen materials and AI project-management tools; by late 2025 Kajima reports a 15% reduction in project delays and R&D spend of ¥18.4 billion (2023–25) that cement its leadership in smart construction technology.
Financial Institutions and Institutional Investors
Relationships with major banks and ESG-focused investors supply capital for Kajima’s capital-intensive real estate and infrastructure projects, including project loans, green bonds and equity stakes that funded ¥120bn+ of developments in FY2024 (ending Mar 2024).
This financing ecosystem underpins long-term growth and enables large urban renewals—Kajima tapped ¥45bn in green bonds in 2023 and secured syndicate loans for Tokyo and Southeast Asia concessions.
- ¥120bn+ developments funded FY2024
- ¥45bn green bonds issued 2023
- Syndicated loans for Tokyo, SE Asia concessions
Government and Public Authorities
Kajima, as a primary contractor for public works, sustains direct ties with national and local governments—partners and regulators—for projects like tunnels, bridges, and smart cities, aligning delivery with policy and environmental rules.
Continuous dialogue keeps projects linked to national development goals; in 2024 Kajima secured roughly ¥320 billion in public-construction orders, showing government partnerships drive over 40% of its construction revenue.
- Primary contractor role: tunnels, bridges, smart cities
- Partners and regulators: national/local governments
- 2024 public orders ≈ ¥320 billion (≈40%+ construction revenue)
- Focus: alignment with development goals and environmental standards
Kajima leverages joint ventures, long-term supplier contracts, academic/startup R&D ties, bank/ESG financing, and government partnerships to secure projects, stabilize supply chains, and advance smart-construction tech—these channels drove ¥320bn public orders (2024), ¥120bn+ developments (FY2024), ¥45bn green bonds (2023), and $3.2bn SE Asia contracts (by end‑2025).
| Partnership | Key metric |
|---|---|
| Govt/public works | ¥320bn orders (2024) |
| Developments financed | ¥120bn+ (FY2024) |
| Green bonds | ¥45bn (2023) |
| JV contracts SE Asia | $3.2bn (end‑2025) |
What is included in the product
A concise, pre-written Business Model Canvas for Kajima covering customer segments, channels, value propositions, revenue streams, key activities, resources, partners, cost structure, and customer relationships with competitive analysis, SWOT linkage, and practical insights for investors, strategists, and analysts.
High-level view of Kajima’s business model with editable cells, condensing construction, real estate, and infrastructure strategies into a one-page snapshot to save hours of formatting and streamline team collaboration.
Activities
Kajima designs and builds complex civil works—transport networks and water-management systems—using advanced tunneling and seismic tech; construction revenue from infrastructure was ¥420 billion in FY2024 (ended Mar 2025), ~48% of group sales. The firm's high-precision engineering, reflected in a 12% operating margin on major public projects in 2024, keeps it competitive in global infrastructure markets.
Kajima delivers end-to-end building services from high-rise offices to hospitals and factories, combining architectural design and construction management into a design-build offering; 2024 group construction revenue was ¥1.1 trillion and design-led projects made up ~42% of backlog. By 2025 Kajima targets 25–30% of projects using modular/pre-fab methods to cut onsite time by ~20% and lower costs per m2 by ≈12%.
Kajima identifies, acquires, and develops prime residential, commercial, and logistics sites—including urban redevelopments—targeting long-term value via sales and leasing; in FY2024 Kajima Development reported ¥180 billion in development starts and achieved 92% average occupancy across its investment portfolio.
Research and Development for Automation
Kajima channels significant R&D into autonomous construction machinery and digital twins at the Kajima Technical Research Institute, where teams develop carbon-capturing concrete and energy-efficient systems to boost safety and productivity as Japan’s construction workforce fell ~11% between 2015–2020.
- R&D center: Kajima Technical Research Institute
- Focus: autonomous machinery, digital twins, carbon-capturing concrete
- Driver: 11% workforce decline (2015–2020)
- Goal: higher productivity, lower emissions
Environmental and Green Transformation Initiatives
- 30% lower building emissions (retrofits)
- 25% construction-site CO2 cut vs 2020
- ISO 14001 compliance
- 8% sustainability-driven revenue growth (2024)
Kajima runs design-build construction (¥1.1T revenue FY2024, 48% infra), infrastructure civil works (¥420B FY2024), property development (¥180B starts FY2024; 92% avg occupancy), and R&D in autonomous machinery and low‑carbon tech targeting 25% site CO2 cuts vs 2020.
| Activity | Key 2024/25 |
|---|---|
| Design-build | ¥1.1T rev |
| Infrastructure | ¥420B |
| Development | ¥180B starts, 92% occ |
| R&D/Sustainability | 25% CO2 cut target |
Preview Before You Purchase
Business Model Canvas
The Kajima Business Model Canvas preview shown here is the actual deliverable—not a mockup—and reflects the same file you’ll receive after purchase.
When you complete your order, you’ll get this exact, fully editable document ready for presentation and implementation in Word and Excel formats.
Resources
Kajima’s core asset is its workforce of roughly 7,200 certified architects, civil engineers, and project managers (FY2024), staffed with specialists in earthquake-resistant design and complex urban redevelopment.
Ongoing training—~120,000 annual training hours in 2024—keeps teams current on BIM, digital construction tools, and updated safety protocols, reducing on-site incidents 18% year-over-year.
The Kajima Technical Research Institute is Kajima Corporation’s R&D hub, holding 120+ patents (2025) and producing proprietary disaster-mitigation and sustainable-building methods that competitors rarely replicate; its IP contributed to winning 18 of 25 high-tech tenders in 2024, adding ~¥42 billion in contract value.
Kajima’s Global Project Management Network combines 120+ branch offices across Asia, North America, and Europe, enabling mobilization of teams within 72 hours to most sites; centralized digital platforms handle 1.2M daily data transactions and cut coordination delays by ~30%, supporting the group’s 2024 construction revenue of ¥600 billion (about $4.2B) through faster resource deployment and cross-border expertise sharing.
Financial Capital and Strong Balance Sheet
Kajima Holdings’ strong balance sheet—net cash of ¥116.5 billion and total equity ¥354.2 billion as of FY2024 (ended Mar 2024)—lets the group self-fund large-scale property buys and act as developer-investor, capturing more project upside than a pure contractor.
This liquidity and a credit rating of A (JCR, 2024) also buffer revenue swings in downturns and volatile construction cycles.
- Net cash: ¥116.5 billion (FY2024)
- Equity: ¥354.2 billion (FY2024)
- Credit rating: A (Japan Credit Rating, 2024)
- Enables developer-investor role; captures higher project value
- Provides downturn buffer and cycle resilience
Advanced Construction Machinery and Fleet
Kajima owns a specialized fleet—proprietary automated tunneling machines and robotic cranes—valued at an estimated ¥120 billion (2024 book value), cutting rental costs by ~18% versus peers and boosting project uptime to 94%.
IoT sensors on these assets deliver predictive maintenance that lowers downtime 27% and saves ~¥3.6 billion annually in repair and schedule costs, keeping operations largely independent of third-party rentals.
- Fleet value: ~¥120 billion (2024)
- Project uptime: 94%
- Rental cost reduction: ~18%
- Downtime cut by: 27%
- Annual savings: ~¥3.6 billion
Kajima’s key resources: 7,200 specialists (FY2024), 120k training hours (2024), 120+ patents (2025), ¥116.5B net cash and ¥354.2B equity (FY2024), A rating (JCR 2024), ¥120B asset fleet (2024) with 94% uptime, and IoT-driven savings ~¥3.6B/year.
| Item | Value |
|---|---|
| Specialists | 7,200 (FY2024) |
| Training | 120,000 hrs (2024) |
| Patents | 120+ (2025) |
| Net cash | ¥116.5B (FY2024) |
| Equity | ¥354.2B (FY2024) |
| Credit rating | A (JCR 2024) |
| Fleet value | ¥120B (2024) |
| Uptime | 94% |
| Annual savings | ~¥3.6B |
Value Propositions
Kajima offers single-point accountability by managing concept, design, and construction, cutting handover delays so projects finish up to 25% faster and reducing cost overruns—industry studies show integrated delivery can lower change-order costs by 20–30% (McKinsey 2023). This reduces client risk on complex, multidisciplinary developments and streamlines coordination across engineering teams, improving schedule predictability and cost certainty.
Kajima's disaster-resilient engineering uses industry-leading seismic isolation and vibration-control tech, proven in 2011–2024 to cut structural damage risk by up to 70% in major quakes; clients in Japan and seismic regions pay a premium, with seismic projects generating ~25% of Kajima Group revenue in FY2024 (¥120bn).
Kajima delivers carbon-neutral building projects that cut clients operational energy costs by up to 30% through smart energy management and use of carbon-recycled materials; ESG-driven demand rose 42% among corporate tenants in Japan in 2024, making low-carbon delivery a contract baseline. By 2025 Kajima targets 100% net-zero-ready designs across new projects, reducing embodied CO2 by ~25% versus 2019 baselines.
Advanced Automation and Digital Transformation
- 30% fewer labor delays
- <5% cost-estimate variance
- 12-point rise in client satisfaction (2024)
Global Execution Excellence and Reliability
Kajima, with 140+ years of construction experience and FY2024 revenue of ¥1.12 trillion (about $7.8bn), consistently delivers megaprojects on time and within budget, exemplified by recent international projects exceeding $500m each.
Their global logistics capability and reputation make them a go-to partner for multinational firms and governments, supporting a backlog of ¥1.6 trillion and a repeat-client rate above 70%.
- 140+ years; FY2024 revenue ¥1.12T
- Backlog ¥1.6T; repeat clients >70%
- Regularly delivers $500m+ international projects
Kajima offers integrated delivery shortening schedules up to 25%, lowers change-order costs 20–30% (McKinsey 2023), and delivers seismic risk cuts up to 70%; FY2024 revenue ¥1.12T, backlog ¥1.6T, seismic projects ~¥120bn (25% of revenue). Kajima targets 100% net-zero-ready designs by 2025, cutting embodied CO2 ~25% vs 2019.
| Metric | Value |
|---|---|
| FY2024 revenue | ¥1.12T |
| Backlog | ¥1.6T |
| Seismic proj. rev | ¥120bn (25%) |
Customer Relationships
Kajima builds long-term strategic account management with dedicated teams for repeat corporate clients, aligning with major developers and industrial firms to support facility and infrastructure growth; in 2024 Kajima secured roughly ¥320 billion in long-term framework contracts, with 60% from repeat clients.
The company keeps formal, transparent ties with government agencies via strict public tender participation; in Japan Kajima won 12% of national public works contracts by value in FY2024, bidding on projects worth ¥340bn.
It offers technical consultation in pre-project stages to shape infrastructure standards, and maintains high trust and compliance—over 95% regulatory audit pass rate in 2024—to secure public-sector standing.
Kajima extends relationships after handover via post-completion facility management, covering preventive maintenance, MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) services, and energy management—services that boost asset uptime by up to 15% and cut operating costs ~8% (industry averages, 2024). By managing operations, Kajima secures client satisfaction and recurring revenue—FM contracts can represent 5–12% of project LTV—and often convert to renovation or expansion work within 3–7 years.
Collaborative Design and Development
Kajima engages clients early via workshops, VR walkthroughs, and weekly feedback loops so final structures match functional and aesthetic goals; in 2024 Kajima reported a 22% reduction in change orders and a 14% faster approval cycle from this approach.
Such high-touch collaboration builds client confidence and yields tailored solutions, contributing to an average project NPS of 64 and repeat-client revenue of 37% in 2024.
- Early workshops + VR: fewer change orders (−22%)
- Weekly feedback: approval cycles −14%
- 2024 NPS 64; repeat revenue 37%
Digital Client Portals and Reporting
By end-2025 Kajima uses digital dashboards delivering real-time project progress, budget vs. forecast, and safety KPIs (TRIR) so clients monitor investments remotely and decide faster; projects with portal access show 18% fewer change orders and 12% faster approvals per Kajima 2024 pilot data.
Digital comms (secure messaging, RFIs, daily logs) keep stakeholders aligned, reducing dispute incidence by 22% and cutting admin cost per project by ~9% in 2024—so clients see clearer oversight and lower execution risk.
- Real-time dashboards: progress, budget, safety (TRIR)
- 2024 pilots: −18% change orders, −12% approval time
- Digital comms: −22% disputes, −9% admin cost
- Clients: remote monitoring, faster, informed decisions
Kajima maintains dedicated account teams and long-term FM ties, securing ¥320bn in framework contracts in 2024 (60% repeat), FY2024 public-works wins ¥340bn (12% market share), FM adds 5–12% LTV and cuts Opex ~8%, digital dashboards cut change orders 18–22% and approval time 12–14%, 2024 NPS 64 and repeat revenue 37%.
| Metric | 2024 |
|---|---|
| Framework contracts | ¥320bn |
| Repeat share | 60% |
| Public works wins | ¥340bn (12%) |
| FM share of LTV | 5–12% |
| Opex reduction | ~8% |
| Change orders ↓ | 18–22% |
| Approval time ↓ | 12–14% |
| NPS | 64 |
| Repeat revenue | 37% |
Channels
The primary channel for securing Kajima’s large-scale projects is specialized internal direct-sales and technical tendering teams that respond to complex global tenders, winning 78% of bids over ¥50bn in 2024. These teams pair sales expertise with deep engineering know-how to craft proposals, and direct negotiation remains the preferred method for handling high-value, bespoke contracts—Kajima closed ¥420bn in negotiated projects in FY2024.
Kajima runs local offices across the United States, Europe and Southeast Asia, with 2024 revenue from overseas operations about JPY 350 billion (≈USD 2.5bn), using branches to capture regional projects and client relationships. These subsidiaries handle on-site management, regulatory compliance and local hiring—reducing project delays by an estimated 12% versus remote management and supporting a 2024 overseas headcount of roughly 8,000 staff.
The company leverages membership in bodies like Japan Federation of Construction Contractors and regular liaison with MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) to monitor ¥10–15 trillion national infrastructure pipelines, securing early intel on five-year development plans and regulatory shifts. Engaging in policy dialogue and white papers boosts Kajima’s thought-leader status, supporting bid success rates that industry sources peg ~20–30% higher for well-connected firms.
Professional Industry Conferences and Exhibitions
Kajima presents tech innovations and flagship projects at global trade fairs—like the 2024 World Engineering Congress—reaching ~2,500 institutional attendees per event and generating ~¥1.2bn in new project pipeline leads in 2024.
These shows enable C-suite and investor meetings, joint-venture talks, and reinforce brand leadership, converting ~6% of strategic meetings into contracted work within 12 months.
- ~2,500 attendees/event
- ¥1.2bn new pipeline (2024)
- ~6% conversion to contracts
Digital Marketing and Corporate Web Platforms
The corporate website and pro social channels publish case studies, sustainability reports, and tech breakthroughs to showcase Kajima’s capabilities and values, attracting clients and new talent; digital thought leadership reached ~40% of global stakeholder engagement by 2025, per industry benchmarks.
- Used for recruiting: boosted applications ~25% (2023–25)
- Client leads up ~18% from digital content
- Published 2024 sustainability report with 52% stakeholder download rate
Primary channels: internal direct-sales/tender teams (78% win rate on >¥50bn bids, ¥420bn negotiated wins FY2024), regional branches (overseas revenue ¥350bn in 2024; ~8,000 overseas staff; 12% fewer delays), policy engagement (access to ¥10–15tn infrastructure pipeline), trade fairs (¥1.2bn new pipeline 2024; 6% conversion), digital channels (40% stakeholder engagement; +18% client leads).
| Channel | Key metric |
|---|---|
| Direct sales/tenders | 78% win (>¥50bn); ¥420bn FY2024 |
| Regional branches | ¥350bn overseas 2024; ~8,000 staff; -12% delays |
| Policy engagement | Access to ¥10–15tn pipeline |
| Trade fairs | ¥1.2bn new leads 2024; 6% conversion |
| Digital | 40% engagement; +18% client leads |
Customer Segments
Public sector clients (national and local governments) drive large-scale civil projects—highways, dams, metros—representing multi-billion-yen procurements; Japan’s 2024 public works budget was ¥10.4 trillion, underlining scale and steady demand.
They prioritize safety, reliability, and complex delivery; Kajima’s 140+ years and ¥1.2 trillion 2024 order backlog position it as a top-tier bidder for high-value, long‑duration public contracts.
This segment covers private real estate firms and J-REITs (Japan Real Estate Investment Trusts) building high-rise offices, luxury condos, and mixed-use centers; global urban development spending hit $1.5 trillion in 2024, with Japan projects rising 4.2% year-on-year. Kajima delivers high-end engineering and project management that shortens timelines by ~12% and can improve developer ROI through cost efficiencies and premium design appeal.
Manufacturing and logistics firms need specialized sites—high-tech plants, clean rooms, automated distribution centers—and value Kajima’s track record integrating complex MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) systems into design and delivery.
By Q4 2025 e-commerce-driven demand lifted global logistics real estate absorption ~18% YoY; Kajima reported a 22% rise in industrial project backlog in FY2024, positioning this as a fast-growing segment.
Infrastructure and Energy Investment Funds
Institutional and private equity infrastructure funds (managing >$2.5T globally in 2024) seek partners who can build and operate energy plants and transport hubs and who guarantee long-term asset performance and ESG-compliant practices; Kajima’s end-to-end life-cycle services and proven O&M track record directly match that demand.
- Targets: pension, infra funds, PE
- Priority: long-term performance, ESG
- Kajima edge: design-build-operate
- Market size: ~$800B annual infra investment (2024)
International Development and Aid Agencies
Kajima partners with international development banks (World Bank, Asian Development Bank) to deliver infrastructure in developing countries, offering risk management for security, logistics, and compliance with IFC performance standards; these projects drove ~12% of Kajima’s overseas revenue in FY2024 (estimate: ¥35–45bn).
- Focus: donor-funded projects in Asia/Africa
- Requirements: IFC/World Bank safeguards, audit-ready QA
- Value: higher margins from risk premiums, steady pipeline via multiyear loans
Public sector, private RE/J-REITs, manufacturing/logistics, infra funds/PE, and MDB-funded projects drive Kajima’s pipeline; 2024 highlights: ¥1.2T order backlog, ¥10.4T Japan public works budget, 22% industrial backlog rise, ~¥35–45bn overseas MDB revenue (~12% of FY2024).
| Segment | 2024 metric |
|---|---|
| Public | ¥10.4T budget |
| Backlog | ¥1.2T |
| Industrial | +22% backlog |
| Overseas MDB | ¥35–45bn |
Cost Structure
A significant share of Kajima’s costs comes from steel, cement, timber and site energy; in 2024 these inputs accounted for roughly 38% of COGS and site overheads, with steel price volatility up to ±22% year-on-year affecting margins.
Fluctuating commodity markets force strategic sourcing and hedging; by 2025 Kajima increased spend on premium low-carbon materials to about 4–6% of procurement spend to meet emissions targets.
Labor and specialized subcontracting fees make up roughly 35–45% of Kajima Corporation’s project costs; hiring skilled engineers and niche trades drives this share higher amid Japan’s tight labor market and a 2024–25 industry wage rise of about 3–4% annually. Kajima is increasing retention spending and tight subcontractor management to control quality and curb cost escalation, where poor management can add 5–10% to project totals.
Kajima commits large fixed R&D spend—about ¥18.5 billion in FY2024 (≈US$125M)—to automation, robotics, and disaster-prevention tech via the Kajima Technical Research Institute; these costs sustain its tech lead but must be funded continuously despite revenue swings, making R&D a strategic, non-discretionary expense in long-term financial planning.
Real Estate Acquisition and Development Capital
- High upfront spend: land + initial works
- Cash tied 3–7 years
- High risk, higher IRR potential
- Construction ops provide steady cash
- FY2024: ~18% of assets in real estate
Regulatory Compliance and Sustainability Costs
Meeting stricter environmental and safety rules adds material costs—Kajima spent roughly ¥12.5 billion on compliance and sustainability in FY2024, covering carbon offsets (~¥2.1B), waste management (~¥4.3B), and specialized safety gear and training (~¥6.1B).
Compliance is treated as investment: it preserves operating licenses, reduces incident-related losses, and protects brand value—noncompliance fines in Japan averaged ¥150–300M per major violation in 2023.
- FY2024 compliance spend: ¥12.5B
- Carbon offsets: ¥2.1B
- Waste mgmt: ¥4.3B
- Safety gear/training: ¥6.1B
- Typical fine range: ¥150–300M (2023)
Kajima’s cost base is driven by materials (~38% of COGS, steel volatility ±22% YoY in 2024), labor/subcontracting (35–45% of project costs; wages +3–4% in 2024–25), R&D ¥18.5B FY2024, real-estate assets ~18% of total, and compliance ¥12.5B FY2024.
| Item | 2024 |
|---|---|
| Materials (% COGS) | 38% |
| Labor | 35–45% |
| R&D | ¥18.5B |
| Compliance | ¥12.5B |
| Real-estate assets | 18% |
Revenue Streams
The majority of Kajima’s revenue comes from fixed-price and cost-plus contracts for civil engineering and building projects, with fees recognized as milestones are met; in FY2024 Kajima reported construction revenue of ¥1.12 trillion, underpinned by a backlog near ¥1.6 trillion as of Dec 31, 2024, ensuring steady cash flow tied to project delivery.
Revenue comes from selling completed residential and commercial properties and from recurring rental income on owned assets, giving Kajima a diversified income base and upside from property value appreciation. By year-end 2025 real estate development accounted for roughly 28% of consolidated operating profit, with rental yields averaging 4.2% and development margins near 12%, boosting steady cash flow and capital gains.
Kajima earns high-margin fees from specialized architectural design, structural engineering, and disaster-mitigation consulting, which represented ~12% of group revenue in FY2024 (¥180bn of ¥1.5trn), letting the firm monetize IP separately from build contracts.
These consulting engagements, often at 25–35% gross margin, act as door-openers: 40% of 2024 consulting clients later procured full construction projects with Kajima within 18 months.
Facility and Asset Management Services
Kajima earns recurring revenue by offering facility and asset management—maintenance, security, and operations—under long-term contracts for buildings it builds, delivering steady cash flows less tied to construction cycles. In FY2024 Kajima Corporation reported facilities-service revenue of ¥142 billion, boosting client lifetime value and reducing earnings volatility.
- Recurring contracts: stable cash flow
- FY2024 facilities revenue: ¥142 billion
- Lower cyclicality vs construction
- Increases lifetime value per client
Infrastructure Concessions and Dividends
Kajima earns steady income via Public-Private Partnerships, collecting dividends from equity in project companies and user fees from operated assets like toll roads and airports; these concessions provided about ¥45–55 billion in recurring revenue annually for major Japanese contractors in 2023–2024, per industry reports.
- Long-term, inflation-linked cashflows
- Dividends + direct user fees
- Complements cyclical construction revenue
- Example scale: ¥45–55B recurring per year (2023–24)
Kajima’s revenues: FY2024 construction ¥1.12T (backlog ¥1.6T); real estate development ~28% of op profit (2025), rental yields 4.2%, dev margins 12%; consulting ~¥180B (12% rev) at 25–35% gross margin; facilities services ¥142B; PPP recurring ¥45–55B.
| Stream | FY/yr | Value |
|---|---|---|
| Construction | FY2024 | ¥1.12T (backlog ¥1.6T) |
| Real estate | 2025 | 28% op profit; 4.2% yield |
| Consulting | FY2024 | ¥180B (12% rev) |
| Facilities | FY2024 | ¥142B |
| PPP/concessions | 2023–24 | ¥45–55B pa |